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On the Shoulders of Giants In a classic of scholarship, “On the Shoulders of Giants,” Robert K. Merton, a great sociologist of science, traces the involuted history of a remark by Isaac Newton, “If I have seen further it is by standing on ye shoulders of Giants.” Merton's book is also a humanist romp, a deliciously humorous dissection of scholarly pretensions, including his own. Merton follows The Aphorism, as he labels this apposite expression, back to Bernard of Chartres. And he documents its passage through a menagerie of more or less illustrious Gallic, Jewish, and Anglo‐Saxon writers, to Newton, and past him to Claude Bernard, Bukharin, and Freud. Each should have cited the source of that seductive simile.
Some did, some made up imaginary sources. Still others just tried to pass the expression off as their own creation, deigning citation unimportant. Meanwhile, The Aphorism kept its hold. Because it packages in a physical metaphor a truth: Even when we imagine (and want others to acknowledge) that our piece of hard‐won knowledge is novel, better, or deeper than that which came before, we know that in fact it depends on what others have done previously.
The novelist's citations are hidden, for PhD students to disinter. The scientist (male and female) is perforce and explicitly homo citans et citatus. This essay will first take a look at the reasons why appropriate citation is essential to the well‐being of our profession.
It will then pass from ideals to two case studies of failures in citation in one subfield of chemistry and physics, that of hypothetical carbon allotropes., One of these cases has managed in three decades to accumulate an intricacy that took eight centuries for The Aphorism. English Dictionary Free Download For Mobile Nokia Asha 311 here. Fault finding is easy; we will try to move beyond it in two ways.
Free Download Driver Web Camera Toshiba there. First, by giving down‐to‐earth suggestions for more‐effective literature searching, and even advice on what to do if, God forbid, you should be guilty of omitting a crucial citation. And second, by introducing, at least in the specific subfield we discuss, a computer‐age tool for avoiding making a fool of yourself. Carbon allotropes We are going to look at hypothetical structures for arguably the most important chemical element, carbon. Diamond and graphite have been known for millennia, but it is only 100 years ago that we learned (from single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction) the structure and metrics of cubic diamond ( 1) and graphite ( 2), at roughly the same time. Graphite is known in hexagonal and Bernal forms, which correspond to different stacking of what are now called graphene layers. Hexagonal diamond, or lonsdaleite, was established some years later, although its existence has been recently questioned.
It became clear early on, at least on paper, that diamond and graphite are really the first members of a family of polytypes. The small dispersion energies involved in the aggregation of graphene layers imply a variety of stacking modes: AA, AB, ABC, and so on.
For diamond, strong as the bonds between what we perceive as horizontal cyclohexanoid sheets are (part of that is an illusion created by our inability to integrate layers and true tetrahedral symmetry—there are chair cyclohexane rings, but no distinct axial and equatorial bonds in cubic diamond), one can also envisage polytypes. Lonsdaleite is the first in an infinite series. SiC makes them real, with a vengeance.
Humanity's incendiary proclivities have no limit. So all along we have had a variety of pyrolytic carbon materials that resist structure determination. Out of a study of one of these, in what is perhaps the first suggestion of a hypothetical carbon allotrope, came H. L. Riley's 1946 structure 3. Structure 3 is clearly low in density and relatively unstrained. Riley's carbon, subsequently named “polybenzene,” will not have a chance against diamond at high pressure.
But one day, chemists will find a clever way to make it at ambient pressure. Next in the roll of real allotropes came buckminsterfullerene. It was initially a gleam in theoreticians’ eyes (none of whom cite each other), sadly ignored, and then discovered for real in gas‐phase carbon‐ablation studies and eventually synthesized in bulk. Now relatively cheap, the molecule, which is thermodynamically unstable but kinetically very persistent, has become a wonderful nexus of chemistry and physics.